Kuyini i-propaganda: incazelo, umlando, amasu kanye nezibonelo

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Uma sikhuluma ngenkulumo-ze, sibhekisela ku- indlela ehleliwe yokuxhumana ukuze ithonye imibono kanye nokuziphathaUmgomo wabo awukona ukwethula zonke izinzuzo nezingozi, kodwa ukwelula umbono womphakathi esimweni esithile ngokukhanga ngokomzwelo nokuphindaphinda emithonjeni yezindaba ehlukahlukene.

Kunokuba yinto yamuva nje, Inkulumo-ze ibilokhu ikhona amakhulu eminyaka. Futhi ihambisane nezinkolo, ohulumeni, izinhlangano zomphakathi, kanye namabhizinisi. Namuhla siyibona kumaphosta, izinkulumo, ezinkundleni zokuxhumana, kumafilimu, nasemsakazweni, futhi isabalulekile njengakuqala ngoba idonsela imizwa eyisisekelo njengokwesaba, ukuziqhenya, ukuba ngumuntu wedwa, kanye nentukuthelo.

I-Etymology kanye nomqondo ojwayelekile

Leli gama livela esiLatinini tshala (yandisa, yandisa), futhi eNkathini Yanamuhla yasetshenziswa yisikhungo samaKatolika esasiphethe "ukusabalalisa ukholo", Ibandla Elingcwele Lokusabalalisa Ukholo (Ibandla Elingcwele Lenkulumo-ze Fide), eyasungulwa ngo-1622 nguGregory XV. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, leli gama laba yinto engeyona eyenkolo futhi laqala ukubhekisela noma yikuphi ukuxhumana okukholisayo okuhloselwe ukukhiqiza ukwesekwa noma ukwenqatshwa maqondana nenhloso, umbono noma umdlali wezepolitiki.

Kuyafaneleka ukuqaphela ukuthi, kuye ngolimi noma izwe, ukuguquguquka kwegama elithileEBrazil nakwamanye amazwe aseLatin America, igama elithi "propaganda" livame ukusetshenziswa njengegama elifanayo nelithi ukukhangisa kwezentengiselwano; iRoyal Spanish Academy iyakuqaphela lokhu kusetshenziswa. Nokho, ngesiNgisi, igama elithi "propaganda" livame ukuba nezincazelo ezimbi ezihlobene nokukhohlisa nokukhohlisa.

Izibonelo zokuqala: kusukela e-Asia kuya eYurophu yakudala

Okubizwa ngokuthi Imithetho ka-Ashoka (ngekhulu lesi-3 BC) ziphakathi kwamarekhodi amadala kakhulu futhi imithombo eyinhloko yokuxhumana okukholisayo Ngezinga elikhulu: imibhalo eqoshwe ezinsikeni nasemadwaleni, etholakala emizileni nasezikhungweni ezibalulekile enyakatho yezwekazi laseNdiya, yasakaza imithetho yokuziphatha, yenkolo, neyezenhlalo. Indawo yazo ehlelekile yaqinisekisa ukuthi zifinyelela inani elikhulu labantu.

Kudala ngaphambi kwezindaba ezivamile, Abathengisi baseGrisi Bashiya imibhalo enemiyalezo yokukhangisa, futhi njengethuluzi lezombusazwe, iSparta yasebenzisa ukusabalala kwamahemuhemu ngo-432 BC ukuze ichithe i-Athens ngaphambi kweMpi yasePeloponnesian. ukuhlasela idumela labantu abanjengoPericles ukuxosha isitha.

Isifiso senkolo kanye "nokukholwa kwenkulumo-ze"

Ku-Roman Curia futhi, ikakhulukazi, ngesikhathi se-Counter-Reformation, iSonto LamaKatolika lahlela ukusetshenziswa kwe- iziteshi ezihleliwe zokusabalalisa imfundiso nezindinganisoNgokudalwa kwe Inkulumo-ze Ethembekile Ngo-1622, ukwanda kwezithunywa zevangeli kwahlanganiswa, kwahlanganisa ukuphathwa, ukuthuthwa kwempahla, kanye nokuxhumana ezindaweni ezazingaphansi kobukoloni.

Ubuchwepheshe obukhulu: kusukela eMpini Yezwe Yokuqala kuya enkathini yempi ephakathi

IMpi Yezwe I yaphawula ushintsho olukhulu: Ukusetshenziswa kolwazi ngezinjongo zempi kwahlelwa ngendlela ehlelekileE-United States, uWalter Lippmann no-Edward Bernays basize ekuhleleni imikhankaso yokukhuthaza ukungena kwezwe empini ngokuveza isitha ngendlela eyethusayo.

Esimweni sezulu se- ukuncintisana kanye nobuqhaweOhulumeni bamazwe alwayo balawula abezindaba nomsakazo, bakhiqiza amaphosta ayizigidi, bavimbela okuqukethwe, futhi bavimbela ukunqotshwa. Ngemva kuka-1917, Ukuqapha ulwazi kuqiniswe kakhulu futhi umoya wonogada basemuva kanye namabutho waqondiswa kahle.

ISpain kanye nenkulumo-ze empini yombango

Impi Yombango yaseSpain yayiyindawo yokuvivinya amasu okukholisa ayezobonakala kamuva eMpini Yezwe IIIndaba kaFrancoist yasungula umqondo wezinhlangothi ezimbili ezilinganayo ukuze kubonakale sengathi kusemthethweni ukuvukela uhulumeni wentando yeningi ngezikhali. Kulowo mongo, izinhlangano ezifana ne- Ukuthunyelwa Kwabezindaba Nenkulumo-ze Kuzwelonke ohlangothini lwabavukeli, kanye noMnyango Wezokusakaza Inkulumo-ze phakathi kuka-1936 no-1937 ohlangothini lwe-republican.

Inkulumo-ze yamaNazi kanye neMpi Yezwe II

Ngemva kweMpi Enkulu, igama elithi “propaganda” lathola incazelo yokudelela. UHitler wazama ukuguqula lokhu ngokukuveza njengethuluzi elihle, UJoseph Goebbels enhloko yoMnyango Wezinsolo Kusukela ngo-1933, imizwa yobumbano, ukuziqhenya ngobuzwe, kanye nenzondo "yabanye" kwasetshenziswa kabi ngokusebenzisa ukukhohlisa okuhlelekile. ukulawulwa okuphelele kwabezindaba, umsakazo, amafilimu kanye nobucikokanye namasu okulindela ukuqinisa umthelela "wezindaba ezinhle".

Kumafilimu, uhulumeni ukhuthaze imisebenzi efana nokuthi Ukunqoba kukaWillens nguLeni Riefenstahl, isiqephu esidumile sokuphakanyiswa kwephathi eNuremberg. E-United States, ngaphambi nangesikhathi sempi, uhulumeni wathuma abenzi bamafilimu abakhulu abangodokhumentari abafana no- Impi yaseMidway (John Ford) noma uchungechunge Kungani Silwa (uFrank Capra), ngubani Wathatha izithombe zamaNazi ukuze azisole. kanye ne-animation exubile ye-Disney enezithombe ezithwetshuliwe.

Impi Yomshoshaphansi: Amagagasi, Imingcele kanye Nendaba Yomhlaba Wonke

Ngemva kuka-1945, ingxabano yaseMpumalanga-Ntshonalanga yaguqula inkulumo-ze yaba impi ehlala njalo engokomfanekiso neyemidiyaI-United States yasakaza umyalezo wayo nge-Voice of America (i-white propaganda, umsakazi ocacile) kanye, nge-Radio Free Europe kanye ne-Radio Liberty (elawulwa yi-CIA), yasakaza okuqukethwe e-USSR naseMpumalanga Yurophu. ukuxuba ulwazi nokuzijabulisa (inkulumo-ze empunga).

I-USSR yaphendula ngokuthi Umsakazo waseMoscow (okusemthethweni) kanye nabasakazi endaweni yase-US, futhi bahlanganisa i-propaganda ezikoleni ukuze kwakhiwe isithombe esibi sendlela yokuphila yaseNtshonalanga futhi kuqiniswe ukuphakama kwephrojekthi yaseSoviet. Ezikhathini ezibucayi, womabili amaqembu asebenzisa futhi inkulumo-ze yabantu abamnyama, ukufihla umthumeli kanye nezinhloso zokukhohlisa noma zokuhlukanisa.

Kusukela ekhulwini lama-21 kuya ekuxhumekeni okukhulu: ubuphekula, amanethiwekhi kanye nokuvinjelwa

Ngemva kokuhlaselwa kukaSepthemba 11, 2001, lokho okubizwa ngokuthi Impi Yokulwa Nobuphekula Yathembela kuthelevishini naku-inthanethi ukusungula izinhlaka ezifana "nokungqubuzana kwemiphakathi" kanye ukuthola ukwesekwa okudumile ngokuhlasela kwe-Iraq ngo-2003ngendaba yezikhali zokubhubhisa ngobuningi kanye nokuxhumana ne-Al Qaeda. Ngo-2006, inkulumo ethi "ubuFascism bamaSulumane" yathandwa kakhulu enkulumweni esemthethweni ukuze ibhekisele ezinsongweni ezivela eMpumalanga Ephakathi.

Ngo-2022, ngokuhlasela kweRussia e-Ukraine, bavinjelwa I-RT ne-Sputnik Emazweni amaningana aseNtshonalanga, ngesikhathi eRussia ukufinyelela ezinkundleni zokuxhumana ezifana ne-Facebook, i-Instagram, i-TikTok noma i-Twitter kwakuvinjelwe ukuqukatha ukusakazwa kwemiyalezo evela eNtshonalangaImpi yenkulumo-ze yaba yizindlela ezimbili futhi yaba namapulatifomu amaningi.

Izici, umsebenzi kanye nezinhloso

Inkulumo-ze ayihlose ukulinganisela izingxabano, kodwa vusa imizwa futhi uthonye izinqumoNgokuvamile kuba yinto eyodwa (umthumeli ongafuni ingxoxo) futhi kuncike emibhalweni yolwazi engase ihlanganise amaqiniso angempela, amaqiniso angaphelele, amahemuhemu, noma izinto ezishiyiwe ngokukhetha. kukhuliswe ngokuphindaphinda kuzo zonke imidiya eziningi.

Nakuba ihlotshaniswa kakhulu nezepolitiki, iyabonakala futhi ku- imikhakha yezohwebo, yezenhlalo, yamasiko noma yenkoloI-sphere yayo efanelekile ukuxhumana kwabantu abaningi, kodwa namuhla ihambisana nokuhlukanisa okuncane kwedijithali kanye namasu okuthonya asukela kuma-meme kuya kuma-documentary amafushane.

Inkulumo-ze kanye nobuntatheli, inkulumo-ze kanye nemfundo

Ingxoxo yobuntatheli ifisa chaza futhi ulungise isimoNakuba inkulumo-ze ivame ukuba lula ukuze umyalezo ukhunjulwe futhi wabelane ngawo ngaphandle kokungqubuzana, imfundo iphakamisa izindlela eziningi zokwenza isahluleloInkulumo-ze igcina umbono owodwa, ovame ukuba nemibono eqinile.

Ukufaneleka kanye nezinhlobo: okumhlophe, okumpunga nokumnyama

Kuye ngokusobala komthumeli kanye nomyalezo, izinhlobo ezintathu eziyinhloko zingahlukaniswa: okumhlophe (okhiphe okhonjiwe kanye nomgomo ocacile), grey (i-setter ayibonakali kodwa inhloso ecacile) kanye mnyama (umkhiphi ofihliwe kanye nenhloso, ngokuzenza ongeyena noma ngokukhohlisa). Lezi zigaba zisiza ekuhlaziyeni ukuba semthethweni kanye nezingozi yomkhankaso ngamunye.

Umehluko ngokukhangisa

"Inkulumo-ze" kanye "nokukhangisa" kuyahambisana, kodwa akufani. Ukukhangisa kudinga ukukhuthaza ukusetshenziswa kwezimpahla noma izinsizakaloInkulumo-ze ihlose ukusungula noma ukuqinisa izinkolelo kanye nobunikazi, ngokuvamile emkhakheni wezepolitiki, wezenhlalo, noma wezenkolo. Uma uMnyango Wezobulungiswa uqala umkhankaso wokonga amandla, sikhuluma ngenkulumo-ze kahulumeni; uma umkhiqizo wethula isiphuzo sawo esibandayo, Lokho ukukhangisa..

Ziyahluka nangesikhathi: ukukhangisa kuvame ukuba umthelela weqhinga nosheshayokuyilapho inkulumo-ze ihlose ukugxilisa izimpande esikhathini eside ku izindinganiso kanye nemibono yomhlabaEmpeleni, womabili lawa masu ayahlangana lapho imikhiqizo ifaka izimbangela zomphakathi endabeni yayo noma lapho ezombusazwe zisebenzisa izinsiza ezivamile zokumaketha.

Amasu avamile okukholisa

Imikhankaso ihlangana izinsiza zokukhuluma nezengqondoPhakathi kwezinto ezivame ukucashunwa yilezi ezilandelayo, ezisetshenziswa emlandweni kwezombusazwe nakwezempi:

• Ukwenziwa kwemibhalo ye-apocryphal (ukudalwa noma ukusatshalaliswa "kobufakazi" obungamanga).
• Isikhalazo ku- ukwesaba ukuvusa ukusabela nokuzithoba emyalezweni.
• Ukusetshenziswa ubufakazi (abantu abahlonishwayo noma "abantu abanjengani").
• Ukukhuthaza ukucabanga onobungane noma "umphumela we-coattail".
• Ukuchaza kabusha amagama kanye nemibono yokushintsha uhlaka lokuhumusha.
• Ukuhlwanyela ukungavunyelwa maqondana nomphikisi noma iziphakamiso zabo.
• Ukuxhashazwa kwe izinkolelo-ze kanye nokuhlanganisa izinto.
• Ukweqa ngamabomu noma ukubalwa kokungalungi.
• Ukuqagela (ukubiza abanye ngamaphutha akho).
• Ukwenza lula okungahlanzekile izinkinga eziyinkimbinkimbi.
• Ukusetshenziswa okujulile kwe iziqubulo kulula ukukhumbula.
• Sesha i- imbuzi yokucashela ukuhambisa ukukhungatheka.
• Ukushintshana kwe-Semantic (ukushintsha amalebula ukuze kuqinisekiswe izenzo).

Uthisha uClyde R. Miller wahlela "amaqhinga" amaningana avamile kwinkulumo-ze yezepolitiki, okusabonakala njalo nanamuhla:

• Ukuthuka noma ukuhlambalaza esitheni.
• Hlola izihloko nezinto ezivamile.
• Dlulisa: ukuhlobanisa imibono noma izimpawu nokucindezela okukhulu ngokomzwelo.
• Ukukhanga ku- igunya kanye nodumo (ochwepheshe, osaziwayo, izikhungo).
• Adopt a isizotha samasu ukuveza uzwela.
• Sebenzisa i- amanga, amanga noma ukunyundela njengesikhali sokudukisa.
• Cela i-«Wonke umuntu uyakwenza» ukwenza ukuziphatha kube ngokwejwayelekile.

I-psychology yezenhlalo, ukucwasa kanye "nenkulumo-ze emnyama"

Inkulumo-ze isukela ku i-psychology yezenhlalo kanye nokubandlulula kwengqondo (i-heuristics, ukucwasa, umbono okhethayo). Kube nengxoxo mayelana "nokuyenga okungabonakali" kanye nezinye izinhlobo zethonya elicashile ekukhangiseni nakwezepolitiki, kanye nendima yolimi ku ukukhiqizwa kwemvume.

UJean-Léon Beauvois wasungula umqondo wokuthi inkulumo-ze emnyama ngezinqubo ezingabonakali zethonya ezibumba imibono emihle noma emibi ye-priori: ukumamatheka okunomusa komethuli lapho exoxa ngezihloko ezithile, ukungabikho kwamaqhawe ahlobene nemibono yokuguqula kuma-blockbuster movie, noma Uxhaso/ukusekelwa kwePentagon ukuqopha amaphrojekthi anokuqukethwe okunamandla kobuzwe. U-Éric Hazan, yena, uhlaziye indlela inkulumo yomphakathi yamanje idlulisela izindinganiso zemibono ngaphandle kokukumemezela obala.

Imidiya nefilimu: kusukela kudokhumentari emfushane kuya ku-blockbuster

Ifilimu yayiyi-vector ebalulekile futhi iyi-vector eyinhloko. Ngaphezu kwezihloko esezishiwo, IHollywood yakhiqizwa ngaphambi kuka-1941 Amafilimu axwayisa ngobuNazi (isibonelo, imisebenzi kaChaplin, uHitchcock, noma uFritz Lang). E-United States, I-Signal Corps Wakhuthaza amafilimu amafushane emfundo, kwathi uGeneral George Marshall wathuma uFrank Capra ukuthi abhale uchungechunge Kungani Silwa, ukuthi amasosha nezakhamuzi ezishukunyisiwe futhi kwaba yindawo yokubhekisela kuyo inkulumo-ze yentando yeningi.

Inothi lesiSpanishi: ngesikhathi sombuso kaFranco, I-TVE yayiyisikhulumi esihle kakhulu sombuso.Ithelevishini yaqala ukusakaza ngokusemthethweni ngo-1956 futhi ngokushesha yahlanganiswa nohlelo lokudweba amandla olungokomfanekiso (ukuvulwa ngezinsuku ezinencazelo, njenge-"25 Years of Peace"). UFranco wagcizelela enkulumweni yakhe umsebenzi wethelevishini njengo uchungechunge lwenyunyana kanye nenqola "yeqiniso" elisemthethweni, kanye nokukhulunywa ngeziQhingi zaseCanary kanye nobumbano lwesizwe.

Amacala aseSpain alandelayo kanye nezimpikiswano zabezindaba

Njengesenzo esiphikisana nenkulumo-ze esemthethweni, Umsakazo Ozimele waseSpain (ekhuthazwa nguDolores Ibárruri "La Pasionaria") yasakazwa phakathi kuka-1941 no-1977, okokuqala isuka eMoscow bese isuka eBucharest, ngenxa sabalalisa imiyalezo yokuphikisa kuhulumeni. Kakade embusweni wentando yeningi, ngo-2003 i-RTVE kanye no-Alfredo Urdaci babiza amaKhomishini Abasebenzi ngokuthi “ce ce oo” emibikweni yezindaba, okwahunyushwa njengokuhlekisa nokubangela izinyathelo zomthetho ezintsha wenyunyana.

Ngo-2015, i- Izikhathi Zezezimali Usole uhulumeni kaMariano Rajoy ngokuthi ukucwasa ekusakazweni kwe-TVE esikhathini sangaphambi kokhetho, kuphawulwe ukunaka okuncane okunikezwe amacala athinta i-People's Party kanye nokuphathwa okubhekwa njengokuzonda i-Podemos. Ngaphandle kwempikiswano, kusebenza njengesikhumbuzo sokuthi impikiswano ngendaba Kusaphila kakhulu entando yeningi.

Izibonelo ezicacile zenkulumo-ze

• Iphosta yokuqasha «Ngifuna ube ngowebutho lase-US", uMalume uSam ekhomba umbukeli, uphawu lwe-" inkulumo-ze yempi I-American
• Imikhankaso kamasipala efana nokuthi «Ngosizo lwakho singanciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwezikhwama zepulasitiki", ezifuna ukushintsha imikhuba yokusebenzisa ngenxa yezizathu zemvelo.
• Imiyalezo yokhetho enethoni yokugqugquzela efana nokuthi «Asambe!» emikhankasweni yamuva yaseSpain, ehlose vuselela abasekeli.
• Izinhlelo zezikhungo zohlobo «Yeka ubudlova obubhekiswe kwabesifazane", okukhanga unembeza womphakathi kanye izinguquko ekuziphatheni.
• Imidwebo engokomfanekiso ku- Indawo yaseKorea engenamasosha ezikhuthaza ukuhlanganiswa kabusha, zisebenzisa izithombe zezingane kanye nemiyalezo yobunye.
• Inkulumo-ze umuntu omelene nokweqisa kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20 ("Ngifuna ukuvota, umkami akangivumeli") okwakuhlekisa ngezidingo zabesifazane zamalungelo.

Izihloko ezihlobene kanye nezinhlaka zokuhlaziya

Ukuze uqonde kangcono lesi simo, kuyasiza ukusiqhathanisa nemibono efana nokuthi ukuhlukaniswa, ukuvumelana okwenziwe, ukulawula komphakathi, i-demagogy noma nge uhlu lweziphambeko zengqondo okuchaza ubuthakathaka bethu ekuphathweni kabi. Kuphinde kuhlobane umkhankaso wezepolitiki, ukuhlelwa kwamandla, ubuciko bephosta kanye nezingxoxo mayelana nokukhangisa. Phakathi kwezincwadi zakudala, izinto zokwenziwa ezifana ne-«Imithetho eyishumi yenkulumo-ze yempi".

Ababhali kanye nemisebenzi yokubhekisela

Labo abafisa ukujula bangaxhumana nababhali ababalulekile. U-Edward Bernays wahlela lo msebenzi wobuciko emisebenzini efana nalena Kucacisa umbono womphakathi y Inkulumo-zeUJean-Léon Beauvois wahlaziya ukuzithoba kanye "nenkulumo-ze emnyama"; UToby Clark wafunda ubudlelwano phakathi ubuciko kanye nenkulumo-ze ngekhulu lama-20; u-Éric Hazan waveza inkulumo-ze yansuku zonke ngolimi; U-Teun A. van Dijk uhlole i- ukuphathwa kabi kwengxoxokanye nezincwadi ezahlukahlukene zokukhangisa kanye nokuxhumana kwezepolitiki zisiza ukuhlukanisa amasu ezentengiselwano kanye nokukholisa ngemibonoImisebenzi yobuntatheli beqembu kanye nenkulumo-ze eMpini Yombango yaseSpain nayo iwusizo.

Phakathi kokuziphatha kahle nokusebenza kahle

Inkulumo-ze inganikeza ulwazi futhi ifundise, kodwa uma isetshenziswa ngendlela engenanhlonipho ifana... ulwazi olungelona iqiniso kanye nokuhlolwaIyalawula, ifihle umongo, futhi isebenzisa ubuthakathaka bokucabanga. Ngakho-ke ukubaluleka kokubonakala komthumeli, ukuqinisekiswa kwedatha, kanye ubuningi bemidiyaEmiphakathini yentando yeningi, umugqa phakathi kokukholisa nokukhohlisa ungaba mncane; yingakho kunconywa thuthukisa ukucabanga okujulile futhi uqaphele izimpawu eziyisixwayiso.

Uma sibheka konke, i-propaganda iyithuluzi eliguquguqukayo elisukela emithethweni eqoshiwe kuya kokuqukethwe okusabalala ezinkundleni zokuxhumana: idla imizwa, yenza kube lula iqiniso, futhi isebenzisa amasu—kusukela eziqubulweni kuya ekwesabeni, kusukela “ekudluliseleni” kuya ezinkolelweni—ukuze ibumbe izimo zengqondo; ukuqonda umlando wayo (kusukela ku-Ashoka kuya ku- Inkulumo-ze Ethembekile(kusukela eMpini Enkulu kuya eMpini Yomshoshaphansi kanye nezingxabano zamanje), izinhlobo zayo (ezimhlophe, ezimpunga, nezimnyama), kanye nomehluko wayo ekukhangiseni kusenza sikwazi ukubona ukuthi bafuna ukusikholise nini nokuthi ngamathuluzi anjani, ngaleyo ndlela senze izinqumo ezinolwazi. Umongo owengeziwe futhi ongenalwazi kangako.

I-athikili ehlobene:

Uyini umthombo oyinhloko kwezomnotho? Incazelo, izici, kanye nezibonelo ezisebenzayo